Affirmative action represents a normative and institutional mechanism aimed at redressing historically entrenched inequalities and ensuring substantive rather than merely formal equality of opportunity. In deeply stratified societies—marked by hierarchies of caste, race, gender, or class—mere non-discrimination does not suffice to level the playing field. Instead, affirmative action seeks to dismantle the structural barriers that … Continue reading Why is the principle of affirmative action considered essential for ensuring substantive equality of opportunity in stratified societies? Critically examine its theoretical justifications, policy instruments, and sociopolitical implications within democratic constitutional frameworks.