Comment on the view that India’s role as a regional power often leads to asymmetry in its relations with Nepal and Bhutan, generating both dependence and resentment.

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India’s Regional Power and the Asymmetry of Relations with Nepal and Bhutan: Between Dependence and Resentment

India’s position in South Asia is often described in terms of primacy and preponderance. With its vast geography, population, economic capacity, and military strength, India inevitably plays the role of a regional power. However, this structural reality generates complex dynamics in its bilateral relations with smaller Himalayan neighbors such as Nepal and Bhutan. On one hand, New Delhi provides economic assistance, security guarantees, and infrastructural integration, creating webs of dependence. On the other hand, such asymmetry can foster resentment, suspicion, and resistance in Kathmandu and Thimphu, as both states seek to preserve autonomy while navigating geopolitical pressures from China.

This essay critically examines how India’s regional role produces asymmetrical relations with Nepal and Bhutan. It traces the historical foundations of these relationships, explores the dimensions of dependence, highlights episodes of resentment, and evaluates the implications for regional order and India’s foreign policy.

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I. Theoretical Premise: Asymmetry in International Relations

The study of asymmetry in international relations—as elaborated by Brantly Womack (2016)—suggests that relations between large and small states are inherently imbalanced, but not necessarily unstable. The stronger power may view the smaller neighbor as marginal to its global strategy, while the smaller state perceives the relationship as existential. This disparity produces contradictory tendencies: dependence on the stronger state for security and prosperity, but resentment over perceived dominance or neglect. India’s relations with Nepal and Bhutan illustrate this logic vividly.

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II. Historical Foundations of Asymmetry

1. Nepal
   • The 1950 India–Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship institutionalized open borders, mutual security commitments, and economic integration. While it facilitated labor migration and trade, many in Nepal have viewed it as an unequal arrangement that compromised sovereignty.
   • Nepal’s geography—landlocked between India and China—further accentuated its dependence on India for transit routes, fuel supplies, and access to global markets.
2. Bhutan
   • The 1949 Treaty of Friendship made India the guarantor of Bhutan’s security, while giving New Delhi a say in its external relations. The 2007 revision of the treaty reduced these formal restrictions, granting Bhutan greater autonomy, but the security dependence endures.
   • Bhutan’s developmental trajectory has been shaped by India’s assistance, including hydropower projects that serve as the backbone of the Bhutanese economy.

Thus, the asymmetrical foundation was embedded early in the postcolonial order, as India assumed both protector and patron roles vis-à-vis its Himalayan neighbors.

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III. Dimensions of Dependence

1. Economic Dependence
   • Nepal: India accounts for nearly two-thirds of Nepal’s trade, supplies critical petroleum products, and is the largest source of remittances from Nepali workers in India.
   • Bhutan: Over 70 percent of Bhutan’s government revenue comes from hydropower exports to India. Indian investments and markets remain central to Bhutanese development.
2. Security Dependence
   • Both Nepal and Bhutan rely on India’s military for training, arms supplies, and in Bhutan’s case, territorial defense against external threats. India’s security presence in Bhutan is formalized through the Indian Military Training Team (IMTRAT).
   • Open borders allow Nepalese and Bhutanese citizens to work and live in India, creating a security-economic interdependence that is unique in South Asia.
3. Infrastructural Dependence
   • India provides vital connectivity infrastructure—roads, rail links, and transmission lines—that tie Nepal and Bhutan to the Indian market and beyond.
   • For Bhutan in particular, India serves as the principal channel for telecommunications, aviation, and internet connectivity.

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IV. Sources of Resentment

Despite the benefits of dependence, episodes of tension underscore how asymmetry generates resentment.

1. Nepal
   • Perceived Interference: India is often accused of meddling in Nepal’s domestic politics, whether during the drafting of the 2015 constitution or in support for certain factions.
   • Economic Blockades: India’s perceived role in the 1989 trade blockade and the unofficial 2015 blockade fostered deep public resentment, fueling nationalism and greater outreach to China.
   • Border Disputes: Territorial disputes over Kalapani, Lipulekh, and Susta exacerbate perceptions of India’s dominance.
2. Bhutan
   • Hydropower Dependency: While lucrative, the reliance on India’s market for hydropower exports creates anxieties about overdependence and limits Bhutan’s diversification options.
   • Doklam Standoff (2017): India’s military intervention during the Doklam crisis with China highlighted Bhutan’s vulnerability, but also raised questions in Thimphu about autonomy in foreign policy decisions.
   • Youth Discontent: A younger Bhutanese generation, less tied to India historically, has voiced concerns about excessive reliance on a single partner.

These examples illustrate the paradox of asymmetry: while dependence sustains relations materially, it also breeds psychological and political resistance.

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V. China as a Counterweight

China’s rise has redefined the triangular dynamics.

• Nepal: Beijing’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) has expanded Chinese investment in infrastructure, telecommunications, and connectivity, providing Kathmandu with greater bargaining leverage. Nepal has also sought to balance India by diversifying economic and strategic partnerships.
• Bhutan: Although Bhutan does not maintain formal diplomatic relations with China, boundary negotiations and economic incentives present alternatives to India’s dominance. The recent moves toward normalizing relations between Bhutan and China have raised concerns in New Delhi.

China thus functions as both an opportunity and a risk for smaller Himalayan states, offering escape from dependence while heightening India’s security anxieties.

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VI. India’s Regional Power: Strategic Dilemmas

For India, managing asymmetry presents both opportunities and dilemmas.

• Opportunities: India can anchor its neighborhood policy on shared cultural linkages, open borders, and developmental assistance, reinforcing its role as a benevolent regional power.
• Dilemmas: Heavy-handed interventions risk alienating neighbors, while under-engagement creates space for Chinese influence. The challenge lies in balancing influence with sensitivity.

India’s “Neighborhood First Policy” and emphasis on connectivity, hydropower cooperation, and disaster relief illustrate attempts to institutionalize benevolent primacy. Yet perceptions of dominance persist, underscoring the limits of policy innovation in overcoming structural asymmetry.

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VII. Critical Evaluation of the Asymmetry Thesis

1. Enduring Dependence: Material asymmetry ensures that Nepal and Bhutan will remain dependent on India in critical sectors, particularly security and trade.
2. Resentment as Agency: Resentment should not be seen merely as a liability. Smaller states use it to assert agency, recalibrate negotiations, and resist overreach, thereby stabilizing asymmetrical relations.
3. Resilience of Ties: Despite periodic crises, the depth of cultural, economic, and geographic interdependence sustains relations. For instance, despite tensions, Nepalese workers continue to migrate to India, and Bhutan’s hydropower dependence remains robust.
4. Geopolitical Constraints: While China offers alternatives, the Himalayan geography and historical-cultural linkages ensure that India remains the pivotal partner. Thus, asymmetry is not easily eroded, though it may be rebalanced.

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Conclusion

India’s role as a regional power undeniably generates asymmetry in its relations with Nepal and Bhutan, producing both dependence and resentment. The paradox lies in the fact that while dependence on India provides security and economic sustenance, it also limits autonomy, fueling nationalist resistance. Nepal exemplifies the volatility of asymmetry, with repeated episodes of resentment, while Bhutan illustrates a more managed asymmetry, though not without concerns of overreliance.

The durability of these relationships will depend on India’s ability to shift from a posture of dominance to one of mutual respect, sensitivity, and partnership. If India redefines its primacy as “primus inter pares”—first among equals—it may transform asymmetry from a source of resentment into one of shared strength. Yet, if structural imbalances are mishandled, dependence will increasingly turn into defection, with China as the principal beneficiary.

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PolityProber.in UPSC Rapid Recap: India’s Regional Power and Asymmetry in Relations with Nepal and Bhutan

Theme	Key Points	Implications/Examples
Theoretical Premise	Asymmetry in international relations creates dependence (material) and resentment (psychological/political).	Brantly Womack’s framework of asymmetry applied to India–Nepal–Bhutan relations.
Historical Foundations	Post-independence treaties institutionalized India’s primacy.	1950 India–Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship; 1949 India–Bhutan Treaty (revised in 2007).
Economic Dependence	India dominates trade, investment, and remittance flows.	Nepal: two-thirds of trade with India; Bhutan: 70% of revenue from hydropower exports to India.
Security Dependence	India provides training, arms, and defense guarantees.	IMTRAT in Bhutan; open borders for Nepalese migrants into India.
Infrastructural Dependence	Connectivity and energy infrastructure tied to India.	Roads, rail, and power transmission lines linking Bhutan and Nepal to Indian markets.
Sources of Resentment – Nepal	Perceived interference in domestic politics, blockades, and border disputes.	1989 and 2015 blockades; Kalapani and Lipulekh disputes.
Sources of Resentment – Bhutan	Overdependence on hydropower, Doklam standoff, generational shifts.	Doklam crisis (2017) raised autonomy concerns; youth critical of reliance on India.
China Factor	Provides alternatives and bargaining leverage for Nepal and Bhutan.	Nepal joining BRI projects; Bhutan–China boundary talks raising Indian concerns.
India’s Strategic Dilemmas	Must balance primacy with sensitivity to smaller neighbors.	“Neighborhood First Policy” seeks benevolent primacy through aid, connectivity, and disaster relief.
Critical Evaluation	Dependence is enduring, resentment is agency, ties are resilient, but geopolitics constrain alternatives.	Nepal shows volatility; Bhutan manages asymmetry better but with rising concerns.
Conclusion	Asymmetry is structural and enduring; India must reframe primacy as partnership to prevent defection toward China.	Need for India to act as primus inter pares (first among equals).

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